Flexion / Extension

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As above but with much less stabilisation.

Stabilisation:

Seated: in the seated position stabilisation usually involves chest straps, an elbow pad and an elbow strap

Standing: Stabilisation in the standing position is normally just the forearm pad.

Attachments:

The hand grip is always used and should be placed in the neutral position (see seated above) for any test.

Axis of rotation:

The axis of rotation is often difficult. It is actually slightly oblique through the wrist just distal to the tubercle of the radius and the head of the ulna (opposite the styloid process)

Anatomical zero:

With the wrist parallel to the forearm (see standing position above).

Range of motion:

Although it may be possible to go to extreme extension and flexion. An appropriate range of motion at the wrist would be between 40 degrees extension and 60 degrees flexion. 

Gravity correction:

Is necessary, however, a counter balance may be provided to accomplish this.

Speeds:

As velocities in some sports (any involving throwing an object) are known to reach thousands of degrees/second (Pappas et al., 1985) testing using a dynamometer has been said to be non-functional. However, speeds over 300 degrees/second have been found to be difficult to achieve by even baseball pitchers (Cook et al., 1987). This could be said to suggest that muscular effort starts the motion but only occurs at slower speeds with momentum and acceleration playing a larger role later in the speed of the motion later through range rather than pure strength. Even if this speed could be achieved it is over such a small arc that the results gained would likely be fruitless.

Generally it is accepted that speeds of 60 degrees/second and multiples of this should be used.

Protocols: 

In the wrist it is normal to look at the ratio between the right and left sides there should be a 0-10% difference between the sides. Anything beyond this would either demonstrate extreme hand dominance (this can happen in certain sports like javelin), or indicate a muscle imbalance which would be best corrected.

Eccentric results are generally 30% higher than concentric within the same muscle Ivey et al (1985) Davies (1984).

Generally the extensors are stronger than the flexors by 30% however results do ary between 100% stronger to 25% weaker

The angle of peak torque for the flexors is 19 degrees and is at 14 degrees for extension (Stefanska 2006).

Normative values: